Exercise: The classical landscape

In this essay I will analyse at least two landscapes by Claude Lorrain and use them to test the following statement made by the noted art historian Kenneth Clark in his book Landscape into Art, first published in 1949:

“This involved a dark coulisse on one side (hardly ever on two), the shadow of which extended across the first plane of the foreground, a middle plane with a large central feature, usually a group of trees, and finally two planes, one behind the other, the second being that luminous distance for which he has always been famous, and which, as we have seen, he painted direct from nature. Much art was necessary to lead the eye from one plane to the next, and Claude employed bridges, rivers, cattle fording a stream and similar devices; but these are less important than his sure sense of tone, which allowed him to achieve an effect of recession even in pictures where every plane is parallel.”

I must do a full annotation of at least one of the images that I’ve chosen and include notes on the use of perspective.

• My account is illustrated with photos and drawings to complement and enhance the written elements.
• Please see the PDF file for more information: lucy-dean-510514-history-of-art-1-exercise-the-classical-landscape-essay– the bibliography is on page 9-10 of this PDF file.

Research point: Trompe l’oeil decorative schemes

For this exercise I must research some of the ways in which trompe-l’oeil has been exploited in works of art, particularly in decorative schemes.

According to the Tate: Trompe-l’oeil is a “French phrase meaning ‘deceives the eye’, which is used to describe paintings that create the illusion of a real object or scene” (Tate, n.d.).

My inspiration for this task was a visit to the Hungarian State Opera House in Budapest in March 2016. Whilst on a tour of the building I encountered the large and expressive fresco of the Apotheosis of Music, 1875-1884, by the German-Hungarian painter Károly Lotz.

My account is illustrated with photos to complement and enhance the written elements.

Please see the PDF file for more information:

Lucy Dean – OCA – Research point – Trompe l’oeil decorative schemes– the bibliography is on pages 12 – 13 of this document.

Research point: Look at recent figure sculptures as seen in WHA and elsewhere

For this task I must source some recent examples of figure sculptures both in the set text A World History of Art and elsewhere. I must also consider the use of modern or contemporary sculpture in a public context.

So with the brief in mind I have selected several works which I have viewed in person. They are entitled as follows: Sitting, 2007 and Crawling, 1999, by Sophie Ryder.

I looked for inspiration in the set text as per the brief, however inspiration was unforthcoming. So I used a visit to the Yorkshire Sculpture Park in June 2014 as a starting point. It was there that I encountered the aforementioned figure sculptures by Sophie Ryder. So it is with these sculptures in mind that I have written this blog post.

Sitting, 2007, by Sophie Ryder. Photographed by Lucy Dean June 2014, Yorkshire Sculpture Park.

A rear view of Sitting, 2007, by Sophie Ryder. Photographed by Lucy Dean June 2014, Yorkshire Sculpture Park.

Sitting, 2007, by Sophie Ryder.

“I sculpt characters and beings – the dogs, the hares, the Minotaurs – are all characters beyond animal form. I am not interested in making a replica. If you would put a real hare next to one of mine you would see great differences”. (Sophie Ryder, n.d.)

Sitting was created by Sophie Ryder for the Yorkshire Sculpture Park.

What do I see in the artwork?

• Sitting is a monumental sculpture of a female figure with a hare’s head. The sculpture is a recurring theme in the artist’s oeuvre as she calls them her Lady Hares. Ryder’s Lady Hares are a counterpoint to the mythological male-inspired Minotaur which features a strong athletic male body topped with a Minotaur’s head. Ryder is inspired by nature, mythology and the human body and combines all of these themes to create her sculptural pieces which celebrate the human condition.
• If I could describe the work in a few words I would say that it is enormous, intriguing and slightly erotic. This is due in part to its size, narrative and the voluptuousness of its forms.
• I was first attracted to the artwork when I viewed it at the Sculpture Park as the materials provided a lovely sheen which I thought was unusual. I immediately wanted to get closer as it seemed to invite the touch. On further inspection I realised that the artist must have used a combination of materials in a highly inventive way: metal wires, salvaged materials, plaster and bronze, which result in a textural sculpture which delicately catches the light.
• The juxtaposition of the female form and the hare’s head fascinates and reminds me of Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland due to its fantastical effect. The impression at first was jarring and I did a double take as I couldn’t believe the artist had attached a hare’s head to a woman’s body in this manner.

Analysis

• My eyes are first drawn to the sculpture’s lovely convex forms which are beautifully cast in various metals. The voluptuous shapes of the breasts, hips and buttocks are rendered attractively and mimic those of the artist’s body. (She uses her own body as a reference for the Lady Hares series). Overall the sculpture has a well-rounded appearance which is due in part to the production processes employed in the making of the sculpture. (The artist used a metal frame on which to apply a series of metal wires prior to applying the plaster).
• The sculpture is predominantly a cool gun-metal grey due to the reflective materials used. In my opinion the colours change according to the atmospheric conditions and the various light qualities. Sitting blends charmingly within its environs and has a distinct presence due to its relative stature and the Lady Hare’s commanding countenance. The design itself is highly characterful. The artist applied acid to the sculpture for longevity and to ensure that it remains intact.
• The surface texture is varied due to the materials utilised and to the artist’s desire to imbue her sculptures with tactile qualities. The Lady Hare is rendered all the more convincingly due to the unevenness of her flesh.
• The artist created the work using a network of interlinking wire structures to form the foundations. It seems to me that she worked in the round as it is a three dimensional structure. Whether she worked fast or slow is debatable. I think the artist needed help to make it as she would have required help to transport it to the site from her studio.
• The sculpture is situated within a large expanse of the park within the vicinity of Camellia House, which forms part of its backdrop. According to the artist her outdoor work tends towards the monumental so that it has a commanding presence and is not overwhelmed by any peripheral information. Sitting is also protected by a fence to prevent livestock and members of the public damaging it. (Sheep and rabbits graze within the park). Also, one of her sculptures which was situated within the Forest of Dean was destroyed due to overenthusiasm by the public, some of whom were mounting and touching her artworks. 

Interpretation

In this artwork the artist is exploring her own mythological ideas and in fact her Lady Hare is entirely a product of her own imagination. She was influenced by the idea of the mythological figure of the Minotaur which is typically presented as a fit male body with a monstrous bull’s head. Her Lady Hare can therefore be viewed as his companion and a feminine counterpart. In pre-Christian times men and women each worshipped a series of male and female deities according to their spiritual beliefs and desires. So I believe the artist is referring to an earlier time when each gender looked to its own spiritual guardians for votive inspiration.

The work was created in the artist’s studio in England in 2007, so the artist was free to create works which represented her ideas and beliefs. The work is obviously created as a piece of art to be viewed within the landscape of Yorkshire. Ryder greatly admires Henry Moore’s art so it is appropriate that her art is on view in his home county and on the land where he grew up. Sitting was specially designed for the Park due to the enormity of its scale and the subject matter. Also, the artist had a residency there shortly after graduating from art college. It is interesting to note that she immortalised a Lady Hare for the park as it is grazed by rabbits and sheep and is an appropriate choice for its surroundings.

Another work which has been donated to the Park on a short term loan and which is currently on view is: Crawling, 1999, by Sophie Ryder. This is a sculpture of another Lady Hare crawling across the grounds amongst the trees. Like Sitting it is large-scale and the figure is based on the artist’s own body. This time though the Hare’s head is up and alert as if to listen for any unusual sounds as it navigates the grounds. Much in the same way a rabbit would in reality. Though there is a bizarre sense of unreality as the rabbit has a woman’s body, and also it is highly unusual for women to crawl around at all. I think the Lady Hare in Sitting seems more relaxed and at ease as she leans back on her arm as if to survey her surroundings. In Crawling, the figure is more alert and her ears are pricked expectantly.

The location is of interest as it provides an optimal view of the sculpture, which would be challenging to recreate in a sterile gallery environment.

Evaluation

The artwork is a mythological sculpture based on animal and human traits. The Lady Hare’s features are immediately recognisable to us as the sculpture has a female body and a rabbit’s head. It certainly tells a story as the Lady Hare is considered by the artist to be the feminine counterpart to the male Minotaur- a bull-headed monster slayed by Theseus in antiquarian times.

Sitting reminds me of an illustration entitled: Haigha handing a hay sandwich to the White King by the artist John Tenniel, who illustrated Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll. The rabbit in the illustration shares similarities with Ryder’s Sitting and Crawling as it too has the body of a human and possesses human traits in a similar vein to the sculptures. Also, Ryder’s oeuvre shares a sense of the fantastical and whimsical with the book. In fact Crawling could be a metaphor for escaping down the rabbit hole/running away from one’s own troubles.

I think much of the dramatic effect of Ryder’s sculptures would certainly be lost if the materials were altered. Marble for instance, looks beautiful but is extremely expensive and inappropriate when viewed in this context. Furthermore, the materials Ryder uses enhance the narrative qualities of the sculptures and endear us to her Lady Hares.

In my view Ryder’s works are particularly successful when viewed in the Park as it is an ideal setting for them. The anamorphic themes match the surroundings and the sculptures themselves demand a commanding view of the area. I think if they were transferred to a gallery setting much of the effect would be lost as not only would it have to be a cavernous space, the verdant scenery contributes to the overall effect and it would be difficult to replicate this in a gallery.

Bibliography

Alice-in-Wonderland.net. (n.d.) Through the Looking Glass pictures. Available from: http://www.alice-in-wonderland.net/resources/pictures/through-the-looking-glass/  [Accessed 26^th March 2016]

Honour, H. & Fleming, J. (2009) Art from 1900 to 1919. In: Archer, M. (ed.) A World History of Art (revised 7th edition). London: Laurence King, pp. 791 & 793.

Honour, H. & Fleming, J. (2009) Between The Two World Wars. In: Archer, M. (ed.) A World History of Art (revised 7th edition). London: Laurence King, p. 814.

Honour, H. & Fleming, J. (2009) Post-War to Post-Modern. In: Archer, M. (ed.) A World History of Art (revised 7th edition). London: Laurence King, p. 841.

Sophie Ryder. (n.d.) SOPHIE RYDER – THE ARTIST. Available from: http://www.sophie-ryder.com/#!sophie-ryder/clqv  [Accessed 26^th March 2016]

Sophie Ryder. (n.d.) THE LADY-HARE. Available from: http://www.sophie-ryder.com/#!the-lady-hare/c1l7h  [Accessed 26^th March 2016]

Sophie Ryder. (n.d.) THE MINOTAUR. Available from: http://www.sophie-ryder.com/#!the-minotaur/cmxi  [Accessed 26^th March 2016]

Sophie Ryder. (n.d.) MONUMENTAL SCULPTURE. Available from: http://www.sophie-ryder.com/#!monumental-sculpture/ceod   [Accessed 26^th March 2016]

Sophie Ryder. (n.d.) Working and Installation. Available from: http://www.sophie-ryder.com/#!working-and-installation/c1xoh [Accessed 26^th March 2016]

Sophie Ryder. (n.d.) Q&A: INTERVIEWS WITH JON BENINGTON & PETER OSBORNE. Available from: http://www.sophie-ryder.com/#!qa/c12qp  [Accessed 26^th March 2016]

Yorkshire Sculpture Park. (n.d.) Sophie Ryder. Available from: http://www.ysp.co.uk/exhibitions/sophie-ryder-exhibition [Accessed 26^th March 2016]

Yorkshire Sculpture Park. (n.d.) Sophie Ryder. Available from: http://www.ysp.co.uk/exhibitions/sophie-ryder [Accessed 26^th March 2016]

Exercise: Annotate a female nude

In this exercise I must annotate one of the classic nudes in the western tradition. I must choose a painting in which the nude woman is the single figure in the painting.

For this task I have selected The Reclining Girl, 1752, oil on canvas by the French Romantic painter Francois Boucher.

The Reclining Girl, 1752, oil on canvas by Francois Boucher.

The Triumph of Venus, 1740, by Francois Boucher.

Reclining Girl, n.d., by Maria Szantho.

Spider diagram annotation of The Reclining Girl, 1752, by Francois Boucher. Created 28th February 2016.

Spider diagram annotation of The Reclining Girl, 1752, by Francois Boucher. Created 28th February 2016.

Process and Technique

The Reclining Girl is an oil painting which I think was painted slowly and deliberately as it takes time to create the gentle transitions between all of the different tonal values. There is also a substantial amount of detail in the background which would have taken careful consideration to achieve. The model began posing for Boucher in 1751 so it’s possible that there were many sittings over the course of its production.

Interpretation and evaluation

In this artwork, a young girl of fifteen reclines on a chaise longue in a private boudoir. She is viewed posing in a provocative manner with her legs spread akimbo awaiting her lover. At the time works such as these were enormously popular with their audience, who admired and collected saucy and suggestive paintings of both genders participating in mildly erotic activities/frivolities.

I believe that the painting of The Reclining Girl was created especially for the King of France as Boucher had been commissioned by the King’s mistress the Marquise de Pompadour to paint erotic scenes for the private Palace apartments. The King was easily bored and so his mistress sought to occupy him with all manner of entertainments such as shows and plays as well as the arts. The King was so taken with Boucher’s rendition that he eventually installed the young lady in his harem!

Boucher’s art perfectly encapsulates the period as life at court was decadent and people sought to amuse themselves by looking at works of art which were suitably risqué. There was enormous demand for his work and as a result it spawned many imitations. Many artists and crafts people created furniture, ceramics and ornaments which emulated his exuberant and romantic style which was loosely based on the mythological and allegorical stories of antiquity.

The work itself seems tame in comparison with some of his other works, such as The Triumph of Venus, 1740. His wife was one of his muses, and The Triumph of Venus features her in a variety of guises shown in glorious abandon, completely nude, immersed in the sea and frolicking with other nude figures in a sort of maritime-themed orgy.

The Reclining Girl differs from The Triumph of Venus, as it is far more sedate and grounded by comparison. Also, there is something very fantastical about the images of his wife in The Triumph of Venus being swept along by enormous waves and surrounded by dimpled cherubins.

The Reclining Girl certainly invites the sensual gaze due to her doll-like appearance and voluptuous form. All of the formal elements combine to create an atmosphere of lazy seduction. Boucher rendered her skin to appear satiny soft and dimpled to appeal to his patrons who wished to cover their walls with his art. Also, we the viewer are situated to gaze upon her pearlescent form in a voyeuristic manner which was likely to have been the artists’ intention.

I will also briefly compare The Reclining Girl to another female nude, this time by a female artist, Maria Szantho.

In Reclining nude, Szantho positions her female nude at an angle to the viewer, with the model slightly twisting away at the hip so as to protect her modestly. The model’s eyes are closed and she seems to be completely at ease with her surroundings. Her limbs are tastefully arranged so that she appears elegant rather than slovenly. The setting is of interest as like Boucher, Szantho has depicted her model reclining on a bed of cushions and duvets. The overall feel is of relaxation and the figure is beautifully framed by the lush verdant setting in which she is sleeping. In fact the environs are so ambiguous and timeless that Szantho could be representing a woman from the past or present who has simply removed her clothes in order to sunbathe nude.

The overall effect of Szantho’s painting is very different to Boucher’s as the model’s legs are placed together, and the use of lighting is far more dramatic. The shadow shapes enhance the model’s graceful curves and contrast wonderfully with the full light which cascades down her body. Szantho’s use of colour is far more daring and creates a sort of earthy naturalness that allows the figure to melt into her surroundings.

It is important to highlight the fact that Boucher may have used more subdued pigments as his paintings were destined to be displayed in boudoirs rather than to be on display for all to see. So I suppose Boucher’s paintings were designed to meet the needs of his patrons who desired mildly erotic art works to create atmosphere in their private apartments. If Boucher had utilised Szantho’s colour palette I think the overall effect would have been destroyed. His models would have resembled caricatures rather than real people. Szantho harnesses the natural beauty of women by displaying them naturalistically and with great poise. It is interesting that although Szantho’s model reveals her breasts the effect is less wanton than in Boucher’s version. Thus I think it is possible to be able to discern how differently men and women view one another through their art.

Also, I’m intrigued by the age difference in the models employed by both artists as I feel this has influenced the works hugely. In Boucher’s Reclining Girl he depicts a young girl of fifteen with legs spread in obvious invitation. Whereas Szantho’s model has clearly matured and as a result appears wiser and far more self-respecting than the figure envisioned by the former. Whether this is as a result of the artists’ directions or the model’s inclinations it is impossible to tell. But both artists depict the female nude in very different ways.

In my opinion it is clear from Szantho’s oeuvre that she is an artist who enjoys the process of painting and creating images of the human form on her canvases. In contrast I believe that Boucher was simply fulfilling a commission for a client and this explains why there are so few painterly flourishes. It seems to me that Boucher’s painting lacks the emotional depth, warmth and integrity of Szantho’s as it was so obviously destined to be used for erotic purposes rather than simply to express his delight for painting.

To conclude, I have been to life drawing classes and I have certainly drawn and painted many nudes over the course of my studies. At first I found drawing/painting from a live nude model daunting, but I have got to the stage now where I have drawn so many people nude that it rarely fazes me at all. In fact I really enjoy drawing both nude male and female models as I believe that figure drawing is the highest form of art. If one can draw a figure, then one can draw anything. It is true that there might be additional cultural factors at work as the nude in Western art is certainly one if not the highest form of art. Furthermore, all classically trained artists aspire to accurately capture figures and portraits as this is essentially what we are all striving for.

Bibliography

Honour, H. & Fleming, J. (2009) Enlightenment and Liberty. In: Archer, M. (ed.) A World History of Art (revised 7th edition). London: Laurence King, pp. 608-616.

Jonathan Jones. (2014) The top 10 female nudes in art. Available from: http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/jonathanjonesblog/2014/apr/15/top-10-female-nudes-art  [Accessed 28th February 2016 & 26^th March 2016]

OCA. (2013) Figure Sculpture. In: OCA (ed.) History of Art 1 Western Art (revised 3rd edition). Yorkshire: Open College of the Arts, p. 130.

Schneider, P. (1967) The Invention of Fashion. In: Janson, H.W. (ed.) The World of Watteau. Canada, Time Inc, pp. 126-140.

University of Oxford, Classical Art Research Centre. (1997-2013) Deities. Available from: https://www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/sculpture/styles/hellenistic1.htm  [Accessed 13^th & 20^th February 2015]

Research point: Does the female nude exploit women for male gratification?

For this research point I must consider whether the female nude exploits women for male gratification? Or does it depend on the context? What does a feminine critique add to the interpretation of a female nude?

I must also research how women artists have portrayed other women throughout the centuries, for example in mythological paintings. Also, how are women artists presenting female subjects today?

Please see the PDF file for more information:

Lucy Dean Research point – Does the female nude exploit women for male gratification

(please scroll down the document for the references which are on pages four and five).

Exercise- Visit a cast gallery

For this task I must visit a cast gallery and examine the size of the works that I may never have had the opportunity to see for myself (e.g. Michelangelo’s David at the V&A). I must also reflect on the models which these casts have provided for western students of painting and sculpture over the centuries.

I must also consider how taking casts translates an image from medium into another, something that I’ve noticed previously in looking at paintings, prints and photographic reproductions.

I visited the Watts Gallery on the 18^th August 2015 to observe some of Watts’s sculptures in more detail. As I have been a volunteer at the Gallery since 2014, I already have a good understanding of his oeuvre, but this exercise allowed me to hone in on some of his other important works. The Sculpture Gallery houses G.F. Watts’ personal collection of plaster casts and other sculptures which he used as models for his paintings. This represents a fascinating aspect of the artist’s career as he revisited sculpture towards the end of his life once his reputation as a portraitist was well-established.

Please see the PDF file for more information:

Lucy Dean Exercise – Visit to a Cast Gallery

(please scroll down the document for the references which are on page four).

Exercise: Annotate a classical sculpture

For this exercise my task is to annotate an image of a classical figure sculpture. This time I must consider issues such as anatomical accuracy versus the portrayal of an ideal, realism, gesture, gender symbolism and eroticism.

Also, I must select a classical figure which I know has been reused or adapted at a later time and compare these later uses with the original.

My chosen sculpture is Pluto and Proserpina, 1620-21 by the Italian Baroque artist Gianlorenzo Bernini. I have selected this sculpture in particular as Bernini is one of my all-time favourite sculptors and I have been fortunate to have seen this work in situ at the Galleria Borghese in Rome. I am a fervent admirer of his work due to the exuberance and sensuality of his sculptures which in my view are incredibly life-like and stunning to behold.

 

Pluto and Proserpina, 1620-21 by Gianlorenzo Bernini.

Spider diagram analysis of Pluto and Proserpina, 1620-21 by Gianlorenzo Bernini.

Spider diagram analysis of Pluto and Proserpina, 1620-21 by Gianlorenzo Bernini.

Spider diagram analysis of Pluto and Proserpina, 1620-21 by Gianlorenzo Bernini.

Rape of a Sabine, 1583, by Giovanni Bologna.

Sketch of Pluto and Proserpina, pencil, 2016, Lucy Dean.

Interpretation

In this artwork it is clear to me that Bernini is celebrating a story from antiquity. The legend states that Pluto, God of the underworld rises up to the Earth one day and meets Proserpina and falls head over heels in love with her. She encounters him whilst picking flowers in a meadow with her friends. He shortly becomes so smitten with her that he abducts her and forces her to live with him in the underworld. Bernini depicts the moment when Pluto gathers her up in him arms and flees with her. She seems to swipe ineffectually at him with tears in her eyes.

Pluto is envisaged in the traditional manner of antiquity in that he has a long bushy beard and a crown to denote him as God of Hell. His companion, the three-headed dog Cerberus is pictured barking below them. His role is as protector of the gates to Hell.

Context

Bernini was profoundly influenced by his father Pietro, who like him was much acclaimed for his skill in regards to the modelling and cutting of marble. His father was responsible for his early training and introduced him to important patrons such as the Borghese and the Barberini families, who commissioned him throughout his life.

Pluto and Proserpina, was created in 1620-21 for Cardinal Scipione Borghese and was one of a series of works which helped launch his stellar career in Rome as an official artist for the Papal Court. I believe the artwork was created in order to assert and cement the Cardinal’s reputation as a connoisseur of fine art. The work itself represented a complete departure from other artworks of the period due to the artist’s exemplary skill in modelling marble. Furthermore, the sculptures he produced for the Cardinal revolutionised the art of the era as they each possessed an emotional depth of feeling which was absent from the Mannerist works produced by Bernini’s contemporaries.

I think the artwork is influenced by the rise of the Papal Court as the Popes required a style of art which would embody their ideals and inspire devotion. Furthermore, Bernini’s oeuvre seems to epitomise an era when people desired art which was more authentic and realistic.

I believe that Pluto and Proserpina was one of a series of sculptures which was always intended to be displayed as a piece of art in the home of Cardinal Scipione Borghese. It was a place where he could retreat to and could entertain his powerful guests and show off his wonderful collection of art. Therefore he required large free-standing sculptures which would inspire awe and excitement. The subject matter of the sculptures refers more to themes of antiquity rather than the Christian faith but that doesn’t mean that they couldn’t be enjoyed by the Papal community. In fact I’m sure that having some original Bernini’s in his home would have established the Cardinal’s reputation amongst his peers as a serious collector of art.

Bernini and Bologna – the similarities and differences

Bologna’s Rape of a Sabine, 1583, is a marble sculpture which bears some resemblance to Bernini’s Pluto and Proserpina in terms of expressing an abduction as a theme from antiquity. Both artists present a nude female being taken captive by a nude male and both describe the ensuing struggle, but in very different ways.

In Bologna’s version the Sabine woman is held aloft by a muscular male figure and leans affectedly to one side with an outstretched arm. Beneath them a man shields his face from view and hunkers down low. The Sabine woman is supposed to have been kidnapped and taken captive by a Roman in a blaze of fury but in Bologna’s version the Sabine man seems to wish to avoid any involvement and does little to detain her captor. The whole scene is traditionally one of great ferocity and activity, however in Bologna’s version it all falls flat. This is due in part to the Mannerist tendency to depict scenes in an indifferent and unemotional way.

When one regards the two sculptures it is clear that they differ hugely in terms of their emotional impact. Bologna describes the events with a detached and uninterested gaze whereas Bernini’s figures seem to explode apart by the force of their mutual desire. Also in Bologna’s version the Sabine woman seems to give up to the inevitable whereas in Bernini’s version the female figure has more spirit and determination.

I dislike Bologna’s version as the gesture of the poses come across as affected and unconvincing due to the complete lack of facial expression and the idealised faces and forms. Also, his rendition lacks the vitality and youthful exuberance of Bernini’s. In short, I far prefer the modelling and attention to detail of Bernini’s creation, the effects of which are utterly sublime.

I feel in Bologna’s interpretation the sculpture should excite me as he’s showing us one of the most arresting parts of the story, but instead it comes across as static and forced. Also, the man who is cowering beneath the Sabine and her captor provides little visual appeal.

There are similarities in terms of the thee-figured composition which was viewed by Bologna as a great achievement as he was the first artist to accomplish what Michelangelo could not – a sculpture which celebrated a trio of figures interacting with one another in a single piece of marble.

It is important to state that Bologna was a Mannerist artist and as such was more interested in depicting the forms rather than the emotions. Bernini was an artist of the Baroque- a period of great artistic and spiritual inspiration, thus his style met the needs of the Vatican who desired a more dramatic and evocative art to reflect their status and divine inspiration.

In Bernini’s sculpture he replaces the third figure with the mythological three-headed dog Cerberus to complete the narrative and to explain the role of the figures in the story. He depicts Cerberus rearing his head in expectation and acceptance of his new mistress.

What sort of processes and techniques do I think the artist used to create the artwork?

Massing in

It seems to me that the artist used a technique known as ‘massing in’ in order to create this fine piece as it would have been necessary to chisel away the largest shapes first in order to create the overall structure and form. I have been instructed in the Renaissance method and I know that as an artist, our aim from the very beginning is to consider the whole structure before we approach the more detailed areas. Therefore one must consider all of the main proportional relationships first so as to arrive at an effective and accurate anatomical structure.

Proportion and gesture

The main point to remember in a sculpture as dynamic as this is to avoid the details and to instead pursue the main shapes and proportional relationships first. An artist/sculptor always begins by concentrating on the proportions and gesture, then the tonal values, then proceeding to colour and the final finishing touches. The highlights and final definitions occur last of all.

Stepping back/observing from afar

In order to create this stunning oeuvre I believe the artist would have worked slowly and considerately. I am convinced that he must have stepped back in order to see it as a whole, as this is a trick artists use to reduce the chances of being distracted by fussy and unnecessary details. The work itself took around two years to complete which I think is entirely plausible as he worked on many commissions during his lifetime (due to his popularity and skill), and is likely to have worked on several pieces concurrently for a multitude of patrons.

Plinths

The work itself is displayed on a substantial plinth so that it can be seen from below and in the round. This explains why there is a lot of detail in the lower half and why the sculptor has introduced some draped fabric in a tasteful manner to shield Pluto’s private parts. If he had not employed this detail then the audience would have been on eye level with his penis and testicles! Also, the curvilinear line of fabric is a masterstroke as it neatly ties the upper half to the lower half and in essence links the three figures together in one piece.

Evaluation

To summarise, I can classify the work as a sculpture which presents the clashing mythological figures of Pluto, Proserpina and the dog Cerberus in the legend known as the Rape (abduction) of Proserpina. I think the sculpture is very realistic as the piece is anatomically accurate and the faces of the figures are believable. I also believe that their faces have been simplified so as to avoid becoming the focus of the statue. Although they have been idealised to some extent, the figures look realistic and are far less affected than in Bologna’s sculpture.

In my opinion this statue represents Proserpina’s descent into vice and the two fighting figures symbolise the battle between good and evil. She cuts a very elegant, virtuous and graceful figure which contrasts dramatically with the savage and rough appearance of Pluto. I think the artist deliberately chose to represent the two people in contrasting ways to further emphasise his message. Also, I admire the opposing manner in which Bernini presents the two figures. The female figure is smaller, and less muscular, but nonetheless she possesses a great strength and determination to escape his clutches. In contrast, the male figure is presented in a more typically masculine manner, with brawn, a strident form and a generously hirsute beard. There is certainly an implied eroticism in terms of how Pluto grasps Proserpina’s thigh and encircles her waist to bring her closer to his chest.

I believe the marble itself is compelling as the purity of the material lends itself to the virtuous and feminine appearance of the lady who in my view represents the goodness of the world. Also the medium is successful in imbuing the figure of Pluto with a sense of godliness.

I think the story of the Rape (abduction) of Proserpina is a highly appropriate choice as it would have appealed to the intended audience of religious figures and influential people that the Cardinal would have entertained at his home. Also, the story of the Rape of Proserpina would have appealed to the Cardinal and his followers as it could be likened to that of the seven deadly sins. As both Pluto and Proserpina might in turn represent vanity and vice (due to his countenance and their mutual lack of clothing). It is interesting to note that like Bologna, Bernini depicts his female figure nude, in contrast to the original legend in which Proserpina was clothed.

In the original legend her clothes are generally disorderly (due to their struggles), but here Bernini removed all of their barriers. In my view the sculpture possesses a greater sense of eroticism and voluptuousness as both models seem to delight in their nudity.

The subject is familiar to me as I have heard it before. As a young child I learnt about this story at school when I was studying the Ancient Greeks. The theme is centuries old, although I knew them as Persephone and Hades (the Greek names).

I feel that if the model was recast in bronze in the manner of the Delphi Charioteer the effect would be dazzling. The original Greek bronzes are exceptionally like-like and incredibly compelling. Also, if I was to extend the artwork in my imagination I would imagine the character of Proserpina fighting Pluto all the way to hell on his chariot.

The work is displayed upstairs in the Villa Borghese and benefits from a well situated position within an expansive and light-filled room which shows it off to its full advantage.

In conclusion, this sculpture is one of my all-time favourites due to the skilful workmanship, inspiring narrative and the contrast between good and evil.

 

Bibliography

Chilvers, I (2009) Dictionary of Art & Artists. Fourth Edition. Oxford, Oxford University Press.

Galleria Borghese. (n.d.) Pluto and Proserpina (1621-22). Available from:

http://www.galleriaborghese.it/borghese/en/eproserp.htm  [Accessed 13^th & 20^th February 2015]

Hall, J. (1974) Hall’s Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art. London, John Murray.

Honour, H. & Fleming, J. (2009) The Greeks and their neighbours. A World History of Art (revised 7th edition). London: Laurence King. Pp 132-143.

Lucie-Smith, E. (1992) Art and Civilization. London, Laurence King Publishing.

maItaly. (2011) BERNINI- Galleria Borghese: “The Rape of Persephone”. Available from:

https://maitaly.wordpress.com/2011/03/02/bernini-galleria-borghese-the-rape-of-persephone/  [Accessed 13^th & 20^th February 2015]

M J Mann. (2013) The Rape of Proserpina by Bernini. Available from:

http://thesecondachilles.com/2013/12/01/the-rape-of-proserpina-by-bernini/  [Accessed 13^th & 20^th February 2015]

Osborne, H. (1970) Bernini, In: Osborne, H (ed.) The Oxford Companion To Art. First Addition. Oxford, Oxford University Press. Pp.130-32.

University of Oxford, Classical Art Research Centre. (1997-2013) Hellenistic sculpture. Available from:

https://www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/sculpture/styles/hellenistic.htm  [Accessed 13^th & 20^th February 2015]

University of Oxford, Classical Art Research Centre. (1997-2013) The Classical period (5th – 4th century BC). Available from:

https://www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/sculpture/styles/classical.htm  [Accessed 13^th & 20^th February 2015]

University of Oxford, Classical Art Research Centre. (1997-2013) Deities. Available from:

https://www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/sculpture/styles/hellenistic1.htm  [Accessed 13^th & 20^th February 2015]

Exercise: ‘Annotate a portrait’

In this task I have annotated and analysed a portrait by the Dutch master Jan Vermeer. It is entitled: Portrait of a young woman, c.1666-67. In this essay I will identify how the portraitist conveys a sense of the sitter’s personality and whether the portrait has a symbolic purpose and if so, how this is conveyed to the viewer.

Spider Diagram Analysis of Portrait of a young woman by Jan Vermeer. Created 20/12/2015.

Portrait of a young woman, 1666-67, oil on canvas, by Jan Vermeer.

The portrait of a young woman caught my eye due to the exaggerated softness of the entire piece and due to the themes which were being expressed by the artist. I was also interested in the narrative which inspired the work and also the fact that the model is presented as she actually looked rather than in an idealised form. That is to say her facial features are less graceful than those of his idealised models in his better known works: The Girl with a pearl earring and The Girl with a Red Hat.

The art work is fascinating to me as it feels as though I am witnessing a show or performance rather than glimpsing a portrait. This is due in part to the variety of theatrical paraphernalia on display, for instance: the masks, the manuscripts, and finally the drapery/theatrical curtain. Also the trumpet is brandished in such a way that the actress could be about to launch into a recital.

The image as a whole is pleasant to observe as the figure is bathed in the warmth of the afternoon light which emanates from behind the curtain. I’m unconvinced that it is one of Vermeer’s best works as the relationship between the near and the far is not rendered particularly successfully in my view. It is well documented however that Vermeer liked to experiment with a camera obscura and perhaps the instrument was the source of inspiration for this work which shares many similarities with his other painting The Allegory of Painting, c.1666-67.

Furthermore, the composition reminds me of my own experiences in the life drawing studio when I studied the craft of drawing and painting. The mask in the painting is reminiscent of an art student’s first forays into drafting figures and casts, a tradition which has continued since the Renaissance. The mask might also be an allusion to the theme of tragic masks which are symbols of deceit or of vice, which tie in with the theme of a performance/drama. (Hall & Clark, 1979).

My eyes are immediately caught by the demure ingénue who beautifully encapsulates the figure of Clio, the Muse of History due to her mode of attire. She is pictured wearing a voluminous ultramarine cloak and a crown of laurel leaves, to symbolise fame and glory. She also clutches a substantial tome in her hand to symbolise the pursuit of knowledge. It is interesting to note that Vermeer chose to represent Clio as she is one of the nine classical goddesses of creative inspiration in poetry, song and the other arts. Each muse has a sphere of influence over learning and the arts. The artist might have selected Clio in relation to his aspiration towards becoming an artist of renown in the realm of the great tradition of History painting.

The different elements of the composition are the figure, the map on the wall, the curtain and the table in the foreground.

Hardly any hard lines have been utilised and only where necessary to frame the composition. The artist has employed geometric forms to depict the furniture and books, in contrast to the figure which is comprised of convex forms and softened lines.

The light set-up seems bizarre as very few highlights have been used. In fact they have been used only to denote her collar and to highlight the creases in her sleeve. It is for this reason that I believe Vermeer decided to forgo nature and instead turned to his camera obscura for ideas. In reality, if he had followed nature’s example he would have added highlights to the lady’s face (to provide prominence, to beautify her and due to her proximity to the light source). It seems to me that he wanted his portrait to have a more refined and subtle appearance and this explains why he has carefully blended the values in her face and the map behind.

The contrast between the figure at the very top of the picture plane and at the bottom is very marked. In fact, the area of the greatest contrast can be found on her left sleeve where it ruches at the elbow. This is highly important as without this area of high contrast and interest, her arm would appear flat and the painting as a direct consequence would seem flat, dull and utterly lifeless. In fact, the painting as a whole is interesting as the person’s visage is usually the focus for a portrait rather than the accoutrements. In this instance however, it is clear that the portrait is secondary to the narrative which is being told. I think that this image is unlikely to have been produced for a particular client as the artist has applied more emphasis to the objects which surround the lady rather than the person herself.

The image is lifted by the inclusion of the dark curtain which pleasantly frames the composition and provides a dramatic counterpoint to the rest of the painting.

In my opinion the work is very soft and sumptuous due to the painterly technique of Morbidezza which has been used by the artist to create the subtle nuances in the flesh tones. I also consider the painting to be harmonious due to the limited colour palette.

The chief hues employed by the artist are yellow ochre and ultramarine which are complimentary colours and are used throughout, which result in a wonderfully harmonious effect. The remainder of the pigments used are: ivory black, lead white, cadmium yellow, and terra rosa. In my opinion the hues used are close to nature and are a combination of warm and cool colours. I have discovered that Vermeer preferred to use either grey or yellow ochre as his Imprimatura, or first paint layer as it provided either a warm, or cool/neutral base with which to work. I think in this instance it is likely that he utilised grey as it contrasts beautifully with the warm golden tones of the wall behind the figure. Consequently, the viewer really feels the glowing intensity of the light of the afternoon. By contrast, if the artist had used an ochre base coat it wouldn’t have been nearly as effective. The pleasing warm notes would simply have vanished into the background.

The surface texture of the painting is predominantly soft and smooth, although some cracking has occurred due to the manner in which Vermeer applied his pigments. The cracking usually indicates that the base layers dried faster than the topper-most layers. (This can be avoided through careful application of the oil paint).

As to Vermeer’s processes and techniques, I believe that the painting was built up in stages from the grey Imprimatura (the first paint layer) through to the final highlights at the end. I think the artist painted slowly as I know that he did not produce many works in his lifetime (only 27 in total). I think he would have started with the largest shapes first then eventually he would have tried to capture the portrait. The painting is very subtle to the point where there is barely any definition at all (in the visage), so it is clear to me that he painted slowly and steadily. (The views of Delft are barely perceptible in the background).

I think it would have taken several months/years to produce this image due to the level of detail in the painting. Also, I know that Vermeer altered his paintings as he progressed so he may well have put it to one side several times in order to consider the compositional aspects of the portrait. X-rays have shown that he altered his paintings as he went along to produce a result that he was satisfied with.

I think it is unlikely that anyone helped him produce this portrait as he worked independently. Painting for him was a labour of love and something that he did in his spare time when he wasn’t trading pictures with other dealers. (He ran his father’s picture trading business).

I believe the portrait is in fact an allegory of painting due to the composition and the similarities of this piece in comparison with his work of the same name. Since before the Renaissance artists have utilised allegories to portray an idealised view of the world and the people who inhabit it. Allegories are also utilised to communicate new ideas and to challenge people’s conceptions. Therefore I believe Vermeer was attempting to elevate the status of painting, in particular history painting and was also aiming for a rise in popularity as an artist.

The model is attired according to the ideals of the sixteenth-century Italian theorist Cesare Ripa who believed that Clio, the muse of History should wear a crown of laurel leaves (denoting honour and glory), and brandish a trumpet symbolising fame and a volume of Thucydides to represent History. The tome signifies the pursuit of knowledge and history.

Thus, Vermeer’s implication is that the artist’s inspiration and source of fame should be the muse of History. At the time theorists believed that history painting was the highest category in art. So paintings which explored/represented scenes from the bible, allegory and mythology were hugely popular and much sought after.

The trumpet is significant for a number of reasons, both for its phallic and musical connotations but also because of where she is pointing it. The model wields the trumpet directly below the drawing of the Hof in The Hague, the seat of the Dutch government and the centre of power.

The large map affixed to the wall is crucial as it represents a number of themes, such as love or a great passion, the demands for news, trade and water control, the link between science and art, military operations and the Dutch Empire. The fact that Vermeer included a reference to The United Netherlands is indicative of his belief that his own fame as an artist would enhance that of his country and that of the smaller towns and cities as well.

It seems to me that the portrait was for his own personal enjoyment as there are no records to indicate that it was commissioned. I also feel that the work is less superior to his other work The Allegory of Painting as that piece is a tour de force of illusionism, daring and skill. In addition to this, The Allegory of Painting is certainly a more accomplished and ambitious scene which might have been the successor to this portrait. It may well be that Vermeer used this portrait as a model for the larger and more creative piece.

In conclusion, the work can certainly be classified as a portrait albeit as an allegorical version. I think the person who is presented to us is recognisable and looks entirely natural. In my view the portrait is secondary to the story which is about the fame that an artist can bring to his country. I also feel that the Portrait of a young woman is less about the model’s personality and more about what painting means to the artist. The artist seems to be telling us to look back at history and use it as a source of inspiration. His painting is rich with meaning and reflects the period in which it was created- a time of scientific discoveries, of trade and commerce and new horizons. The portrait is a fascinating glimpse into a period long ago when individuals and groups were competing to colonise and map vast areas of the world.

References

Alpers, S. (1983) The Art of Describing, Dutch Art in the Seventeenth Century. London, John Murray Ltd.

Chilvers, I (2009) Dictionary of Art & Artists. Fourth Edition. Oxford, Oxford University Press.

Hall, J & Clark, K. (1979) Muses. In: Hall, J. (ed.) Hall’s Dictionary of Subject’s and Symbols in Art. London, John Murray Ltd. pp. 197, 217, 219 & 313.

Lucie-Smith, E. (2003) Dictionary of Art Terms. World of art. Second edition. London, Thames and Hudson.

Read, H., Hindley, G., Harris, N & Stangos, N. (1984) Vermeer In: Stangos, N (ed.) The Thames and Hudson Dictionary of Art and Artists. London, Thames and Hudson Ltd, pp.333-34.

Wheelock, A. K, (1981) Vermeer. The Library of Great Painters. London, Thames and Hudson Ltd.

Exercise: ‘Annotate two seventeenth-century art works’

For this exercise I have researched two seventeenth-century art works. The first is entitled: ‘Apollo and Daphne’ 1622-25 by the Italian sculptor Bernini and the other piece is called: ‘Samson and Delilah’ 1610-13 by Peter Paul Rubens.

There are many similarities between these works; not least because they both represent epic love stories. Both Bernini and Rubens have depicted the male figures in the throes of passion. One pursues his love until she transforms herself into a tree; while the other figure Samson, lies exhausted in a heap on the floor (after a night of intense, biblical lovemaking). In these two works the artists have sought to represent the follies of mankind and human weakness. In contrast, the female figures appear to possess the attributes of goddesses, with lovely, flowing hair and elegant forms. It seems to me that the female figures in both works are placed centre stage and match their male counterparts in stature.

There are many ways in which the two works differ. Firstly, ‘Apollo and Daphne’ is essentially a story about unrequited love, whereas ‘Samson and Delilah’ describes a scene from the ‘Book of Judges’. Initially Samson resisted Delilah’s attempts at seduction, but he eventually yielded to her and the painting reveals the results.

Secondly, ‘Samson and Delilah‘ was produced in response to an important commission from Nicholaas Rockox who was a highly respected Antwerp citizen. His brief was to create an image which would ‘serve as a warning against the seductive powers of women’ (Januszczak, 2015). Ironically it also depicts the weakness of mankind in general. Also, in order to better communicate the narrative, Rubens included extra figures in his composition such as the Philistines immortalised in the entrance to Delilah’s boudoir.

Thirdly, they are obviously constructed from different materials. Bernini was an all-round virtuoso, so had very little difficulty in immortalising the narrative of ‘Apollo and Daphne’ in marble. Rubens on the other hand, utilised oil on canvas to produce one of the most sensuous images of the Baroque.

In my opinion both works are hugely inspiring and entertaining as they represent scenes from antiquity and the bible. I have been fortunate to visit the Galleria Borghese in Rome where I witnessed the spectacle of Bernini’s ‘Apollo and Daphne’ which was breathtakingly beautiful. The play of light on the figures and the magnificence of the carving was absolutely stunning. I continue to believe that it is one of the most beautiful sculptures that I have ever seen due to the balance between the figures and the harmony of the composition.

Rubens’ ‘Samson and Delilah’ is equally beautiful and monumental but for me Bernini’s work is truly remarkable as he was in his early twenties when he created the sculpture. In Rubens’ painting the elements and the composition are harmonious and it is a very engaging interpretation of the story.

Spider diagram analysis of ‘Apollo and Daphne’ 1622-25, by Gian Lorenzo Bernini. Created 17/03/2015.

‘Apollo and Daphne’ 1622-25, by Gian Lorenzo Bernini.

Spider diagram analysis of ‘Samson and Delilah’ by Peter Paul Rubens. Created 17/03/2015.

‘Samson and Delilah’ 1610-13, oil on canvas by Peter Paul Rubens.

 Bibliography

Galleria Borghese (n.d.) Apollo and Daphne. [Online]. Available from:

http://www.galleriaborghese.it/borghese/en/edafne.htm  [Accessed 17th March 2015]

 Italy perfect (2014) Bernini’s Apollo and Daphne: Unrequited Love. [Online] Available from:

http://www.italyperfect.com/blog/berninis-apollo-and-daphne-unrequited-love.html [Accessed 15th and 17th March 2015]

Lucie-Smith, E. (2003) Dictionary of Art Terms. World of art. Second edition. London, Thames and Hudson.

Rowling, N. (1987) Belief. In: Law, J. (ed.) Art Source Book. London, New Burlington Books, p. 222.

“Rubens: An extra large story” By Waldemar Januszczak . BBC Scotland. 6th Feb 2015. Television.

Wood, J. (1994) Italy, France and Austria in the 17th Century. In: Hooker, D. (ed.) History of Western Art from Ancient Greece to the present day. London, Bookmart. pp. 238-39.

Exercise: ‘Prints for sale’

I have to imagine in this exercise that I am a publisher in Amsterdam in the middle of the seventeenth century, dealing in books and separate engravings.

My task involves compiling a select catalogue of up to a dozen prints that I would like to offer my regular clientele. My customers are predominantly from the Amsterdam merchant class but their artistic tastes are wide-ranging so I have selected prints and drawings which I think will appeal to them and meet their requirements.

I have included a short paragraph to accompany each work to explain the reason for my choice. They are grouped under different headings such as: Religion, Allegory/ mythology, Landscapes, Portraits and Nudes. (Please scroll down for more information).

‘Christ presented to the people’, 1655 by Rembrandt. Drypoint etching,.

‘The good Samaritan’, 1633, Rembrandt. Etching and burin.

‘Virgin and child in the clouds’, 1641. Etching and drypoint by Rembrandt.

‘Adam and Eve’, 1638. Etching, by Rembrandt.

Detail of ‘Diana Bathing’, 1631 by Rembrandt. Etching and burin. Printed on entry ticket to the Rembrandt House in Amsterdam. Visited 28/11/2014.

‘The Phoenix or the statue overthrown’, 1658, etching and drypoint by Rembrandt.

‘Death appearing to a wedded couple’, 1639. Etching and drypoint by Rembrandt.

‘The windmill’, 1641, etching by Rembrandt.

‘Marine Landscape with a View of Antwerp in the Background’, pen and ink drawing by Pieter Bruegel.

‘View of Delft with Schiedam and Rotterdam Gates’, n.d. Pen, ink and wash drawing by Abraham Rademaker.

My dry-point etching of Saskia, ‘Rembrandt’s Wife’ completed 28th November 2014 on a visit to The Rembrandt House in Amsterdam.

‘Seated Male Nude, 1646 by Rembrandt. Etching and burin. From the entry ticket to the Rembrandt House.

Religion

I have selected up to four religious works to satisfy the needs of those of my clients who collect devotional prints. They are as follows: ‘Christ presented to the people’, ‘The good Samaritan‘, ‘Virgin and Child in the clouds’ and ‘Adam and Eve’- all are by Rembrandt.

‘Christ presented to the people’ is an interesting etching because it was re-worked by Rembrandt in order to simplify the composition and add drama to the scene. I have selected this print because it conveys an important message and has been composed by the artist to allow us, the viewer, to determine Jesus’ guilt.

‘The good Samaritan‘ is part of my catalogue because it conveys the Christian values of love, charity and hope. It also highlights the importance of giving, sharing and taking care of each other and of putting other people’s needs before one’s own. I think it is beautifully drafted and would appeal to a multitude of people regardless of their beliefs.

‘Virgin and Child in the clouds’ is a rarity in seventeenth-century Dutch art due to its obvious Catholic theme. I have included it as I hugely admire the composition and the exceptional draftsmanship which generates a charming, lovingly maternal feel. Another reason it has made my selection is because it was produced by Rembrandt in response to the Italian print of the same title by Frederico Barocci.

My final print for the religious series is ‘Adam and Eve’ which I think is a stunning interpretation of the original story. The drafting is magnificent and the composition is wonderfully composed. Rembrandt ensures that we are in no doubt as to the verdant nature of the environs and the scene is set for temptation. The dragon looms overhead in an oppressing and derisive manner.

Allegory or mythology

I have selected three allegorical or mythological themed prints as narrative and allegorical prints were popular in this period. They are as follows: ‘Diana Bathing’, ‘The Phoenix or the statue overthrown’ and ‘Death appearing to a wedded couple’ –all are by Rembrandt.

‘Diana Bathing’ is a detail from the original print. This is chiefly a study of the female nude; however the title implies that this is in fact the mythological goddess of hunting. I think this print would appeal to a wide-range of people due to its romantic style of interpretation and dramatic use of shading. Furthermore, the figure is lovingly rendered and beautifully arranged.

‘The Phoenix or the statue overthrown’ depicts a phoenix rising from the ashes; a symbol of the resurrection; which could also be attributed to the story of Christ. It has a striking composition which makes full use of the diagonal lines. The figure in the centre at the base of the etching is believed to represent envy. It is part of my oeuvre due to its significance as an image of hope and courage in the face of adversity.

The final image in this series is ‘Death appearing to a wedded couple’ which I have selected as it represents the transience of life. Death, as symbolised by a skeleton, rises from a grave raising an hour-glass towards the fashionable young couple who pass by in sixteenth-century costume.

Landscapes

The next series include three landscapes which feature scenery from the Low Countries. These prints and drawings were produced by three different artists. They are as follows: ‘The windmill’, by Rembrandt, ‘Marine Landscape with a View of Antwerp in the Background’, by Pieter Bruegel and finally the ‘View of Delft with Schiedam and Rotterdam Gates’, by Abraham Rademaker.

‘The windmill’ is part of the selection because it is a quintessential image of the Low Countries and their environs. This windmill is from one of the fortifications around Amsterdam and so it would have been immediately recognised by my clients.

‘Marine Landscape with a ‘View of Antwerp in the Background’ is a suitable landscape image which I think would be popular with my clientele as the Dutch were great traders and explorers. This image by Bruegel is emblematic of their scope and creativity and desire to establish trade routes all over the world.

‘View of Delft with Schiedam and Rotterdam Gates’, by Abraham Rademaker is a fine example of a landscape based on the historic dockland areas of Delft. Although it is not dated I think it gives a charming impression of how the docks would have looked during this period. I think many a customer would choose this print to adorn their walls as the tall ship in the foreground is symbolic of the Dutch merchant’s ambition for trade and commerce.

Portraits

I have included a dry-point etching of ‘Rembrandt’s Wife’ which I created during a printmaking workshop on 28th November 2014 on a visit to The Rembrandt House in Amsterdam. I have incorporated it into my catalogue as I thought that it might be of interest to my clientele. It is thought to be a portrait of Saskia, who was a constant source of inspiration for his work.

Nudes

My final print for the catalogue is ‘Seated Male Nude’, 1646 by Rembrandt. It is an etching and was also re-produced on my entry ticket to the Rembrandt House in Amsterdam. It completes the collection and I think will appeal to my consumers as it is of an elegant design (the male nude is modestly covered); and the marks made by Rembrandt vary between scrawls, fine hatching and cross-hatching.

Bibliography

Collectie Museum Het Rembrandthuis (2014) Adam and Eve, 1638. Amsterdam, Museum Het Rembrandthuis.

Collectie Museum Het Rembrandthuis (2014) Diana Bathing, 1631. Amsterdam, Museum Het Rembrandthuis.

Collectie Museum Het Rembrandthuis (2014) Seated Male Nude, 1646. Amsterdam, Museum Het Rembrandthuis.

Munz, L. (1961) The Drawings of Pieter Bruegel A Complete Edition. Trans. Herrmann, L. London, Phaidon Press Ltd.

Ornstein-Van Slooten, E. & Holtrop, M. (n.d.) The Rembrandt House a catalogue of Rembrandt etchings.  In: van der Coelen, P. & Hinterding, K. (eds.)  Amsterdam, Netherlands. The Rembrandt House , pp. 47, 57-58, 68, 78-79, 111,127 & 163.

Press Association. (2014) David Cameron stresses ‘Christian values’ in Christmas message [Online]. Available from:

http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2014/dec/24/david-cameron-christmas-message-ed-miliband    [Accessed 24th December 2014 & 16th March 2015]

Wheelock, A (1981) Jan Vermeer. The Library of Great Painters. London, Thames and Hudson.